Medea’s murder of her children Essay

The image of Medea presented by Euripides in the exodos is undoubtedly largely horrifying and appalling to the audience. Medea manifestly presents her desire for revenge and it is difficult to sympathise with her character. However, in many respects her character fits the image of a tragic hero. Although, it is widely controversial to associate Medea with heroic aspects in modern days, from an ancient Greek’s perspective her actions and personality might well match aspects of the tragic hero such as consistency, appropriation, noble state, and tragic flaw. This essay will explore whether her presentation in the exodos as well as her actions in other circumstances justify her tragic hero status. First of all, Medea has always enjoyed a good reputation and high-rank in society. Her heroic identity symbolises the fact that she is a grand- daughter of the Sun. Moreover, Medea was a princess of Colchis and displayed a vast knowledge of enchantments and medicine. When Jason abandons her in a foreign land she becomes a ‘stateless refugee’ and her pride suffers. It has also been stated by the Chorus in the play: ‘Of all pains and hardships none is worse Than to be deprived of your native land’. [L. 651-652] It seems intolerable for her to be rejected & homeless in a foreign land. We can infer this by the use of words such as ‘pains and hardships’ which emphasises her dramatic position through an accumulation of two similar meanings. Also, the word ‘deprived’ implies that Jason has taken her land almost physically. Here, the role of chorus modifies the structure in the play as they appearance break up the acts in the play. Thus, Euripides attaches an important role of the chorus to construct the play. Her behaviour has been farther explored by E. R Dodds who states that members of an ancient Greek society acknowledged ‘anything which exposes a man to the contempt or ridicule of his fellows, which causes them to â€Å"lose face,† †¦ as unbearable’. According to Aristotle, a tragic hero must hold noble, respected social status. It can be argued therefore that Medea’s murder of her children in exodos was a desperate and impulsive response to ‘the pressure of social conformity’ (Dodds) and a diseased attempt to gain back her reputation. Such actions are common in Greek tragedies such as The Oresteia where Atreus admitted an even larger horrific act of revenge against his brother who had affair with Atreus’s wife. Similarly, while Medea loses face when Jason abandons her, Atreus’s reputation suffers when his wife commits adultery. Nevertheless, later Atreus’s takes care of his brother’s son. This, as opposed to Medea, can be considered as tragic hero’s sense of guilt or, perhaps, the way to dispense justice. On the other hand, Medea doesn’t regret her actions. Her sense of guilt does not exist. Contrarily, she seems to be proud of her murder as she uses cynical and sarcastic techniques while she responds to Jason’s accusations in stichomythia: ‘Go home; your wife waits to be buried. ‘ The mention of Jason’s would-be wife is extremely cruel and tactless as previously, Medea mercilessly murdered her. In the exodos, Medea and Jason have a short and sharp exchange after Jason sees the dead bodies of his children. Questionably, Medea appears here to be extremely exultant, victoriously using cynical techniques untypical for the tragic hero such as ‘You grieve too soon. Old age is coming’. It is clear that Medea identifies her murder with a triumph over Jason. This opposes the fact that Medea can be regarded as a tragic hero because members of an ancient Greek society, despite their desire for high reputation, had a sense of guilt and justice which is described by E. R Dodds as a ‘gradually growing sense of guilt†¦ which transformed into a punishment’ and ’embodiment of cosmic justice’. This implies that Medea as a tragic hero should regret her actions however, this never occurs. Instead, at the ending of the play, Medea and the bodies of her children are taken away by the gods in the shape of Deus ex Machina. Up until the exodos, Medea has had some features of a tragic hero. However in the exodos, the absence of any kind of regrets opens up a debate over whether Medea’s presentation can be truly regarded as a tragic hero. Here, the gods seem to appear strangely sympathetic in her murderous sufferings and surprisingly shocking in supporting Medea’s actions and punishing Jason. It can be argued that the gods support Medea and Deus ex Machina occurs in order to dispense justice by not allowing Jason to bury his children and leaving him unsatisfied. Although, the gods not always seem to make ‘right’ decision and sometimes their will performs as cruel and unmoral. It isn’t just the fact that Medea kills her children that seem to be questioning Medea’s heroic aspects. It is also true that Medea does not die. The play is in fact the only surviving Greek tragedy where the tragic hero doesn’t die. Furthermore, Medea is a woman driven by ‘male desire’. Her desire for revenge leads to her overcoming the sense of maternal instinct. Therefore, the Greek audience couldn’t completely regard Medea as a tragic hero and ‘yet the audience (†¦ ) shudder at the ruthless of her anger and passion for vengeance’ (Easterling). It is unclear whether Medea aims to portray herself as a woman or to employ the â€Å"heroic ‘male’ weapon†. She often sympathise with females as a group ‘We were born women – useless for honest purposes. But in all kinds of evil skilled practitioners’ [l. 406-407] Here, Medea uses first person plural verb in order to become a representative of females. However, the fact that she lacks her maternal instinct and kills her children in ‘reaction to her dishonour’ and ‘her violence, which she herself abhors’ follow the idea of a male desire. At this point, it is difficult to define Medea as a tragic hero because she evidently contradicts the idea of consistency in that she portrays herself sometimes as a representative of oppressed women and sometimes as a ‘male hero’. It is largely controversial to argue that Medea’s presentation in the play (particularly in the exodos) is ‘good and appropriate’ (Aristotle). The tragic hero’s character should be ‘good if the purpose is good’ (Aristotle). Euripides’s presentation of Medea at the beginning of the play is to make the audience pity her dramatic position however, if we consider the fact that previously Medea has committed two acts of murder in order to marry Jason it is difficult to sympathise her. The murder of her children is a highly horrifying act of the play as the children plead for help (‘Help, help, for the gods’ sake! She’s killing us! ). The repetitiveness of a word ‘help’ and their imprecations gives us a sense of their desperation. In this way, Medea fits her image of a tragic hero because according to Aristotle, ‘fear and pity must be aroused’ in circumstances in which a ‘tragic incident between those who are near or dear to one another’. Indeed, we pity characters in the exodos as the act of murder has been done at the expense of innocent children pleading for help. On the other hand, it has been investigated by P.E Easterling that â€Å"Euripides’ many imitators have tended to present Medea’s behaviour as that of madwomen†. This is because the way in which Medea murders her children is largely brutal as she uses a sword and seem to be murdering them in a mercilessly pattern. Therefore, even the Ancient Greek audience seems to reject the idea of Medea being ‘good and appropriate’. In addition, for Medea to fully fit the image of a Greek tragic hero it is essential that she has her tragic flaw which contributes to the downfall. It is necessary for the tragic heroes to be â€Å"wrapped in the mystery (†¦) with that ‘something beyond’ which we can only see through them, and which is the source of their strength and their fate alike†¦ † (Anderson) Without this, tragedy cannot be regarded as a tragedy itself. Therefore, in context of Medea, the equivalent of ‘something beyond’ can be considered her excessive pride and obsession with the ‘laughter of my enemies’. Even if the audience does not point out any indication of the ‘laughter’ of Medea’s enemies, she still insists their presence. She does not perceive the support of the women of Corinth (meaning the Chorus) or -perhaps, she does not want to perceive it. Therefore, Medea’s obsession with the ‘laughter’ of her enemies can be considered as the catalyst of her tragic downfall. However, it might be believed that this obsession cannot be regarded as the catalyst of her tragic downfall because it is clear that Medea fully acknowledges her flaws and in her horrific act in the exodos she recognises that what’s she’s doing is wrong. In the line 1077 she says: ‘I understand The horror of what I am going to do’ Evidently, Medea appears to be aware of her tragic flaw and to accept the consequences. In this case, Medea cannot be regarded as a tragic hero because she acknowledges her flaws. Therefore, the Greek audience could not be entertained or surprised by Medea’s actions. We do not pity her because she accepts her tragic flaws throughout the play. Medea’s self-awareness of her immorality contradicts Anderson’s belief that ‘the message of tragedy is that men are better than they think they are. The message needs to be said over and over lest the race lose faith in itself entirely’. There is a large distinction between the recognition of a tragic hero in Ancient Greece and the modern world. We associate heroic aspects with goodness, appropriation and a well-developed sense of forgiveness. The presentation of Medea in the exodos as well as her actions throughout the play, strongly contradict with the principles of Christianity and her character appears as irrelevant to modern ideas. Unfortunately, Medea from the Ancient Greek’s point of view can be regarded as a tragic hero to a significant extent. The horrific act of murdering her children is insane and sickening; however, it is without doubt that it fits with the image of a tragic hero in a several respects. Bibliography Aristotle, Poetics. Trans. S.H. Butcher. www.classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics/html Accessed 5th January 2012 P.E Easterling – ‘The Infanticide in Euripides’ Medea’, Yale Classical Studies, 25(1997) 193-225 Dodds, E.R. The Greeks and the Irrational. University of California Press, (2000). Allan, William. Euripides: Medea Duckworth Companions for Greek and Roman tragedy. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, (2002) Anderson, The Essence of Tragedy Northrop Frye,† The Mythos of Autumn†

Tiger Brands Limited Essay

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Trifles Dead Bird Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Report - Essay Example That the educated third world people are the target consumers for use of laptops. Finally, I would like to thank you for giving me the opportunity to write this report. It gave me the chance to familiarize myself with the third world countries application of laptops, their buying powers and the benefits of Apple Inc. for production of low cost laptops for use in third world countries. Regards Name Table of content Executive summary Report Plan 1. Recipient of the Report 2. Identify the Topic of the Report 3. Identify the Purpose of the Report 4. Identify Potential Resources that will be needed for Support 5. Identify Methods to be used to Gather Information 6. Identify Criteria to be used to evaluate the Information Collected 7. Findings 8. Conclusion 9. Recommendations 10. References 11. Appendices Executive summary This report was commission by the COE of Apple Inc. together with his executive team to seek recommendations for the production of low cost laptops to be used in the wor ld countries and the collected funds to be used in the awareness of American masses on obesity health implications. This report provides an analysis and an evaluation of the prospective production of the low cost laptops by Apple Inc. and the health focus. The methods used for the collection of information include the use of questionnaires and surveys to identify the feasibility of this project. The research draws attention to the fact that there is an extensive use of laptops in the third world counties from education to working class. Low cost laptops will be a viable project in the third world countries as they have a low buying power considering the high current costs of laptops which are mostly priced at over $1000. Further investigation reveal that the money collected from the sale of the low cost laptops will be highly effective in the creation of obesity awareness in America. The report concludes that laptops are highly needed in the third world countries especially in the e ducation sector and the corporate world. Communication and the use of internet will have a high impact on the application of low cost laptops in the third world countries. It is recommended: That Apple should adopt the project of producing low cost laptops in the third world countries. That Apple should conduct a survey to identify the programs which are effectively suitable for the application of laptops. That educators in third world countries should partner with Apple to offer suitable learning experiences for the intended users. Report Plan 1. Recipient of the Report The recipient of the report will be the top management including the CEO of Apple, Inc. the plan will be presented to all those officials who have some role to play in decision making matters. 2. Identify the Topic of the Report The topic of the report will be ‘Recommendation for Production of Low Cost Laptops and Healthcare Focus’. The report will be based on two recommendations for the company. First recommendation will be to manufacture low cost laptops in order to increase the market share of the company in third-world countries. Second recommendation will be to put some efforts for reducing obesity in America, which is one of the most critical health problems and can only be dealt by creating awareness among people

Developing security policy (Security, Ethics and Electronic Commerce Essay

Developing security policy (Security, Ethics and Electronic Commerce Systems) - Essay Example A security policy specifically is the imperative foundation on which a valuable and complete security program can be developed. This significant constituent of the overall security architecture is usually ignored. A security policy is the most important way in which management’s decision for security is converted into specific, measurable, and testable goals and objectives. It is essential to take a top down approach (defining the policy and then roles and responsibilities to enact it properly) based on a well-stated policy in order to make an effective security architecture. On the other hand, if there is an absence of a security policy guiding the decision makers, then decisions will be made on ad-hoc bases, by the individuals developing, installing, and maintaining computer systems, and this will result in a disparate and less than optimal security architecture being used or implemented (Weise & Martin, 2001). The structure of this report is as follows: next section describ es the components necessary for developing and defining the policy then a policy is developed to govern the transaction management system of an organization. It characterizes the challenge or issue that management is dealing with. It might include regulatory restrictions, security of highly significant data, or the appropriate utilization of certain technologies. Sometimes, it may be needed to describe terms. It is also vital that everyone involved in the policy, must understands its content. Moreover, the conditions must also be stated under which policy is applicable (Olzak, 2010; Patrick, 2001). Objectives are usually specified within the scope definition and may take in actions and configurations forbidden or restricted. In addition, these are also normally defined outside a policy, conditions and organizational practices may necessitate placing certain standards and

Geomorphology Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Geomorphology - Lab Report Example This paper explores the process of geomorphology. The processes of the surface are made up of wind, water, fire, ice, and living things on the earth surface. The chemical reactions forming soils and altering the stability, material, and topographical rate of change under gravitational force are some of the surface processes. These factors are strongly affected by climate. The geological processes are the mountain range uplift, volcanic growth, isostatic changes in the elevation of land surfaces, sedimentary basins formation are also surface processes. The surface of the earth together with the topography form an intersection of climatic, biologic, and hydrologic action with the processes of geology. The huge topographies found on Earth display the surface intersection and the action of the subsurface. The belts of the mountains are always uplifted because of the geological processes. In the regions that are uplifted high, denudation produces the sediment that is deposited and transported elsewhere within the coastal landscape. In this case, The similar ideas may apply in cases where the individual landforms are evolving as a result of the subtractive and additive balance of processes. These processes may directly influence each other. The water, ice sheets together with sediments are the loads that may alter the topography via flexural isostasy. In many cases, the local climate of a certain place may be modified, which would in turn modify the topography by altering the hydraulic regimes of the evolution. Different geomorphologists are specifically interested in the feedback potential of tectonically and climate mediated through the geomorphic processes. The geomorphologists addresses the issues considered being more specific. They investigate the glacial deposits like eskers, moraines, and the proglacial lakes together with the glacial erosion traits that establishes the chronologies of all the

Global Warming Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Global Warming - Essay Example Various reasons have been given to justify their disbelief. The sceptics reason that contrary to allegations by advocates, the increase in carbon monoxide in the atmosphere has enhanced wheat production by 50 to 75 percent, vegetables by 51%, and increased vitamin and antioxidant concentration in the produce. According to these detractors, the present increase in global temperatures is due to natural causes such as solar activity, volcanic activity, and so on, and that car and industrial emissions are too insignificant to cause climate change. Other reasons are given mostly in terms of dollars and cents. For instance, one website entitled Global Warming Lies (2010), manned by a webmaster who chose to remain anonymous, cites the $400 billion yearly cause as the major reason for not joining the Kyoto Protocol (the worldwide agreement to significantly reduce carbon emissions). So far the United States is the only country in the world that has continually refused to affix its signature o n the agreement (UNFCCC, 2010). Recently, the spate of cold weather was also cited as proof that global warming did not exist, because the weather was so cold, not warm (Charisse, 2010). To this, advocates have responded soundly, According to Fitzpatrick (2010), the present extended period of cold and snowy weather over North America is actually confirmation that global warming is still happening. Global warming does not mean that the world is getting warmer, but that weather extremes are being experienced in different parts of the globe. Presently, there is an El Nino weather disturbance, the warmer than usual sea surface temperatures over the East Pacific. The phenomenon causes many more storm systems to develop over North America, and energizes the jet stream. Furthermore, the negative North Atlantic Oscillation has created a

Approaches to Clinical Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Approaches to Clinical Psychology - Essay Example Most individuals are familiar with Freud’s characterization of the personality as differentiated into three categories of ego, super-ego, and id. When considering the relevancy for this personality theory for psychodynamic counseling it’s important to note that Freud believed that the conscious elements represented by the ego in certain situations experienced cognitive overload resulting in repression as a protective mechanism. Psychodynamic counseling treatment functions by determining the patient’s underlining malaise as rooted in the complex interaction of conscious and unconscious forces governing the individual’s actions. Once the forces governing the patient’s behavior have been identified, the therapy then functions to develop a functional response to the issue. As one might infer, while the process can be implemented through quick and direct methods, psychodynamic therapy usually occurs through the long-term and methodical investigation of t he patient. A number of objections have surfaced in response to psychodynamic therapy that has largely marginalized it as a therapeutic approach. One of the most prominent is the general rejection of many of Freud’s theories as largely unscientific, as their assumptions are predicated on untestable hypotheses (Corey 1991).

How Can We Get More Out of Work (and Maybe Life) Assignment

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Do the Pros of Monetary Policy Outweigh the Cons Essay

Do the Pros of Monetary Policy Outweigh the Cons - Essay Example However, as a stabilization policy monetary policy effectiveness as a tool of economic stabilization among other instruments of economic policy varies from one economy to another. This is as a result, of differences in the economic structures, divergence in the degrees of development in money and capital markets that result in varying degrees of economic progress, and the differences in the prevailing economic conditions. Monetary policy use over time has however, brought about controversy based on whether its applicability during periods of economic recession is beneficial or not. The protagonists among the policy makers uphold the use of monetary policy as a means of adjusting the economy to the high levels of inflation. On the contrary, the antagonists do not support the use of monetary policy as a stabilization tool since they believe that the cons due to its use outweigh the pros gained when the government through the central bank applies monetary policy measures in the economy. It is therefore, worthwhile to see the impact of monetary policy on the economy in order to determine whether the use of monetary policy is beneficial or not. Monetary policy effects during economic recession period when the markets are covered with inflation with the rapid increase in price and interest rates could be beneficial has it has a positive impact as a control measure. According to Keith Kuester’s article the recession period that recently unfolded prompted monetary and fiscal stabilization tools use by the policymakers in the United States and abroad as a means of mitigating the drastic economic downturn. Kuester (2011) further on describes how the economists largely depended on the use of monetary policy as a way of stabilizing the economy. This is because monetary policy can be applied in order to reduce the interest rate in periods of economic recession by stimulating private demand. As a result, the contractionary monetary policy lowers the interest rate and subsequently influences government expenditure by lowering it through the decrease of the interest rate to up to close to zero percent as it cannot move to negative percent. On the other hand, the Economist Intelligence Unit (2010) also support the drastic measures by the government to reduce the interest rates of federal funds through the Federal reserve central bank in order to control the upsurge of economic recession from increasing further to extreme levels. Jenkins & Eckert (2000) also asserts that the government through the central bank regulated the interest rate in order to control the money supply thus, reduce the rate of inflation. In addition, the use of monetary policy brings about stabilization of prices in the long run this is because it can control the slowing down of the inflation rate. Kuester (2011) affirms that at lower interest rate due to the monetary policy enforcement in place the private consumption and investment increases as they gain confidence in the sta bility of the economy. This is because the household tend to presume the presence of a stable inflation and as a result, the households tend to save less and increase their demand for consumption goods. In addition, the Economist Intelligence Unit (2010) also affirms that after applying monetary policy on the economy oversees a recovery that continues to gain momentum as the spending of consumers increase significantly from an annualized rate of 1.6% up to 3.6% after a quarter. This is accompanied considerably by an increase in the gross domestic product.

Cache Positive Environment Essay Example for Free

Cache Positive Environment Essay AC1.1: A description of what is meant by a positive environment In both a setting and home a positive learning environment is crucial for children. There are a number of things that contribute to a positive environment. A setting or class should be engaging and dynamic place for the children attending. Creating order and removing clutter helps children to feel there in orderliness in the environment in order from them to learn, having a disorganized environment can be a distraction. Children should be provided with a clean, safe, and organized setting. Stimulating posters, pictures along with work the children have made should be put up around the setting, not only can this be engaging for the children but shows the children’s work is valued. Poster and displays should be regularly changed and updated related to the theme or topic being taught as this gives variety. The settings lay out and arrangement contributes to having a positive environment and ensuring the setting is bright and well equipped regarding toys, furniture ect. Laying down the ground rules, making the children familiar with them and are aware of the consequences if they are not followed. Children need boundaries and need to have a clear understanding of what is expected of them. Post the ground rules in the setting and always lean towards positive, rather than negative, re-enforcement of them. Give out stickers and small prizes as rewards for achievement. Be generous with praise and use positive statements to reinforce positive behaviour. Practitioners should be welcoming, happy and friendly to both children and parents. AC1.2: An identification of regulatory requirements that underpin a positive environment for children and young people In September 2008 the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) came into force placing, for the first time, a legal requirement on all early years’ providers to comply with the Government’s learning, development and welfare requirements for 0-5 year-olds. The over-arching aim of the EYFS is to help children achieve the ‘Every Child Matters’ outcomes. These aims, for children and young people aged 0-19, are to be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution and achieve economic well-being. EYFS states that the environment plays a key role in supporting and extending childrens development and learning. It also says to observe the child finding out what they can do and their interests. It promotes teaching and learning to ensure children’s ‘school readiness’ and gives children the broad range of knowledge and skills that provide the right foundation for good future progress through school and life. The EYFS also states that being outdoors has a positive impact on childrens sense of well-being and helps all aspects of childrens development. The Childcare Act 2006, Health safety at work act 1974, Care Standards Act 2006 and Safeguarding of Vulnerable Adults (where applicable) all have a helping in the regulatory requirements that underpin a positive environment.

Slack Bus And Slack Generator

Slack Bus And Slack Generator The Table below shows input data of each busbar in the system used to solve the power flow and the simulation result according to instruction described in question 1. BUS Input Data [Simulation Result] BUS 1 pu P (load) 100 MW Q (load) 0 Mvar BUS 2 P (load) 200 MW Q (load) 100 Mvar CB of Generation Open BUS 3 1 pu P (Gen) 200 MW P (load) 100 MW Q (load) 50 Mvar AVR On AGC Off Slack bus and slack generator In power flow calculation, unique numerical solution cannot be calculated without reference voltage magnitude and angle due to unequal number of unknown variables and independent equations. The slack bus is the reference bus where its voltage is considered to be fixed voltage magnitude and angle (1à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0 °), so that the various voltage angle difference among the buses can be calculated respect. In addition, the slack generator supplies as much real power and reactive power as needed for balancing the power flow considering power generation, load demand and losses in the system while keep the voltage constant as 1à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0 °. In real power system, when relatively weak system is linked to the larger system via a single bus, this bus can represent the large system with an equivalent generator keeping the voltage constant and generating any necessary power like slack bus. [1] Bus type (PQ bus or PV bus) BUS Bus type Comments BUS 2 PQ Bus Generator is disconnected to Bus 2 BUS 3 PV Bus Generator is connected to Bus 3 and the magnitude of voltage of generator keep constant by using AVR In general, each bus in the power system can be categorized into three bus types such as Slack Bus, Load (PQ) Bus, and Voltage Controlled (PV) Bus. The definition and difference between PQ Bus and PV Bus are described as follows; [2] PV Bus (Generator Bus or Voltage Controlled Bus): It is a bus at which the magnitude of the bus voltage is kept constant by the generator. Even though the bus has several generators and load, if any generators connected to the bus regulate the bus voltage with AVR, then this bus is referred to PV Bus. For PV bus, the magnitude of the bus voltage and real power supplied to the system are specified, and reactive power and angle of the bus voltage are accordingly determined. If a preset maximum and minimum reactive power limit is reached, the reactive output of the generator remains at the limited values, so the bus can be considered as PQ Bus instead of PV Bus. [2] PQ Bus (Load Bus): It is a bus at which the voltage is changed depending on total net real power and reactive power of loads and generators without voltage regulator. Therefore, in the power simulation and calculation, the real power and reactive power of the loads are specified as input data and accordingly the voltage (magnitude and angle) is calculated based on the above input. The following table specifies input and output of each bus type in the power system simulation and calculation. Bus Type P Q (Magnitude) ÃŽÂ ´ (Angle) PQ Bus Input Input Output Output PV Bus Input Output Input Output Slack Bus Output Output Input Input System Balance Total Generation Load Demand BUS Real Power (MW) Imaginary Power (Mvar) Generation Load Generation Load BUS 1 204.093 100 56.240 0 BUS 2 0 200 0 100 BUS 3 200 100 107.404 50 Total 404.093 400 163.644 150 Difference Pgen Pdemand = 4.093 Qgen Qstored in load = 13.644 Reason: Real power loss due to resistance of transmission line and imaginary power storage due to reactance of transmission line are the reasons for the difference between power generation and load demand in the system. P (Losses) Q (Storage) over the transmission line BUS Real Power (MW) Imaginary Power (Mvar) Sending Receiving Losses Sending Receiving Stored BUS 1 BUS 2 102.714 100.650 2.064 56.653 49.773 6.88 BUS 1 BUS 3 1.379 1.378 0.001 0.4141) 0.4131) 0.001 BUS 3 BUS 2 101.378 99.350 2.028 56.990 50.227 6.763 Total Plosses = 4.093 Qstored in load = 13.644 1) Imaginary power flows from Bus 3 to Bus 1. The summation of real power losses and imaginary power storage over the transmission line are exactly same with total difference between generation and load. Therefore, it is verified that the difference is shown over the transmission line. Kirchoff balance as each bus [4] Bus1 ÃŽÂ £ P1 = + Pgen1 Pload1 P12 P13 = 204.093 100 102.714 1.379 = 0 ÃŽÂ £ Q1 = + Qgen1 Qload1 Q12 Q13 = 56.24 0 56.653 + 0.413 = 0 Bus2 ÃŽÂ £ P2 = + Pgen2 Pload2 P21 P23 = 0 200 + 100.65 + 99.35 = 0 ÃŽÂ £ Q2 = + Qgen2 Qload2 Q21 Q23 = 0 100 + 49.773 + 50.227 = 0 BUS3 ÃŽÂ £ P3 = + Pgen3 Pload3 P31 P32 = 200 100 + 1.378 101.378 = 0 ÃŽÂ £ Q3 = + Qgen3 Qload3 Q31 Q32 = 107.404 50 0.414 56.99 = 0 According to the calculation above, as summation of incoming outgoing real power and imaginary power at each bus become zero, it is verified that each busbar obeys a Kirchoff balance. In addition, the total power system is completely balanced, because total generation power (real imaginary) are equal to summation of total load demand and real power loss stored imaginary power over the transmission (i.e. Pgen Pdemand = Plosses, Qgen Qstored in load = Q stored in system) as shown above. Voltage Angle and Angle Difference As a result of the Powerworld, the voltage angle and angle difference are shown in the table below. BUS Voltage Angle Voltage Angle Difference BUS1 ÃŽÂ ´1 = 0.00 ° BUS1- BUS2 ÃŽÂ ´1 ÃŽÂ ´2 = 0.00 ° (-2.5662 °) = 2.5662 ° BUS2 ÃŽÂ ´2 = -2.5662 ° BUS2- BUS3 ÃŽÂ ´2 ÃŽÂ ´3 = -2.5662 ° (-0.043 °) = -2.5232 ° BUS3 ÃŽÂ ´3 = -0.043 ° BUS3- BUS1 ÃŽÂ ´3 ÃŽÂ ´1 = -0.043 ° 0.00 ° = -0.043 ° Power System Analysis -1 The table below summarizes generation and voltage angle variation at each bus as generation at Bus 3 varies from 0 MW to 450 MW by 50MW. Simulation Results and Observation P3 = 0 MW P3 = 50 MW P3 = 100 MW P3 = 150 MW P3 = 250 MW P3 = 300 MW P3 = 350 MW P3 = 400 MW P3 = 450 MW Reactive Power Generation at Bus 3: It is found that reactive power generation Q3(gen) decrease while real power generation P3(gen) increase because Bus 3 as a PV Bus regulates the constant bus voltage magnitude by controlling excitation of the generation through the AVR. Power Generation at Bus 1: It is found that P1(gen) decreases and Q1(gen) increases simultaneously, while P3(gen) increases and Q3(gen) decrease. As the total load demand in the system keeps constant (i.e. Ptotal(load) = 400 MW, Qtotal(load) = 150Mvar), any necessary real power and reactive power for the system balance need to be supplied by generator (slack generator) at Bus 1. Therefore, power generation P1(gen) and Q1(gen) at Bus 1 change reversely compared to power generation change at Bus 3. Voltage Angle Difference: In general, real power flow is influenced by voltage angle difference between sending bus and receiving bus according to PR =. Therefore, it is observed that as real power generation P3(gen) increases real power flow from Bus 3 to Bus2 increase, accordingly voltage angle difference (ÃŽÂ ´3 ÃŽÂ ´2) between Bus 3 and Bus 2 increases. However, decrease in real power from Bus 1 to Bus 2 due to increase of P3(gen) result in decrease of voltage angle difference (ÃŽÂ ´1 ÃŽÂ ´2). In addition, Real power between Bus 1 and Bus 3 flows from Bus 1 to Bus 3 until P3(gen) reach to 200 MW and as P3(gen) increase more than 200 MW the real power flows from Bus 3 to Bus 1. So, it is also observed that voltage angle difference (ÃŽÂ ´3 ÃŽÂ ´1) is negative angle when P3(gen) is less than 200MW and the difference increase while P3(gen) increase. Power System Analysis -2 The table below summarizes the variation of power generation and voltage angle difference at each bus when the load demand at Bus 3 varies by 50MW and 25Mvar. Simulation Results and Observation P2 = 0 MW Q2 = 0 MW P2 = 50 MW Q2 = 25 MW P2 = 100 MW Q2 = 50 MW P2 = 150 MW Q2 = 75 MW P2 = 250 MW Q2 = 125 MW P2 = 300 MW Q2 = 150 MW P2 = 350 MW Q2 = 175 MW P2 = 400 MW Q2 = 200 MW P2 = 450 MW Q2 = 225 MW Power Generation at Bus 1 and Bus 3: It is observed that as the total load demand in the system increases due to increase of load demand P2(load) Q2(load) at Bus 2, any necessary real power for the system balance is supplied by generator (slack generator) at Bus 1 considering constant P3(gen), so P1(gen) increases. In addition, any necessary reactive power for the system balance is supplied from Bus 1 as well as Bus 3, so both Q1(gen) and Q3(gen) increase. Voltage Angle Difference: It is found that real power flow increase both from Bus 1 to Bus 2 and from Bus 3 to Bus 2 due to increase of load demand at Bus2. Accordingly, both voltage angle difference ÃŽÂ ´1 ÃŽÂ ´2 and ÃŽÂ ´3 ÃŽÂ ´2 increase when the power flow P12 and P32 increase. In addition, when P2(load) is less than 200 MW, P1gen is relatively low. Therefore real power between Bus 3 and Bus 1 flows from Bus 3 to Bus 1 at lower P2(load) (less than 200MW). On the other hand, while P2(load) increase more than 200 MW, the real power flow direction changes (Bus 1 to Bus 3) and the real power flow increases. Accordingly, the voltage angle difference ÃŽÂ ´1 ÃŽÂ ´3 change from negative to positive and increase. Voltage Magnitude at Bus 2: It is observed that magnitude of bus voltage at Bus2 drops due to increase of the load demand at Bus 2. Question 2 System Model Admittance Matrix In order to construct the admittance matrix of Powerworld B3 case, single phase equivalent circuit can be drawn as below; z = r + jx (r = 0, x = 0.05) z12 = z21= j0.05 pu, y12 = 1/ z12 = 1/j0.05 = -j20 pu = y12 z13 = z31= j0.05 pu, y13 = 1/ z13 = 1/j0.05 = -j20 pu = y31 z23 = z32= j0.05 pu, y23 = 1/ z23 = 1/j0.05 = -j20 pu = y32 Admittance matrix can be defined as follows; BUS = Diagonal elements Y(i,i) of the admittance matrix, called as the self-admittance [lecture slide] [6], are the summation of all admittance connected with BUS i. = y12 + y13 = -j20 j20 = -j40 pu = y21 + y23 = -j20 j20 = -j40 pu = y31 + y32 = -j20 j20 = -j40 pu Off diagonal elements Y(i,j) of the admittance matrix, called as the mutual admittance [lecture slide] [6], are negative admittance between BUS i and BUS j. = y12 = -(-j20) = j20 pu = y13 = -(-j20) = j20 pu = y21 = -(-j20) = j20 pu = y23 = -(-j20) = j20 pu = y31 = -(-j20) = j20 pu = y32 = -(-j20) = j20 pu Therefore, the final admittance matrix BUS is; BUS = = The following figure shows the BUS of the Powerworld B3 case and it is verified that the calculated admittance matrix is consistent with the result of the Powerworld. Power Flow Calculation Nodal equation with the admittance matrix can be used to calculate voltage at each bus if we know all the current (i.e. total generation power and load demand at each BUS) and finally the power flow can be calculated accordingly. , therefore, In this question, however, simulation results of the voltage at each bus from the Powerworld are used for the power flow calculation as follows; [Simulation result] Voltage at each Bus and Voltage Difference V1 = 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.00 ° pu (BUS1) V2 = 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -0.48 ° pu (BUS2) V3 = 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.48 ° pu (BUS 3) Voltage difference between BUS 1 and BUS 2 V12 = V1 V2 = 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.00 ° 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -0.48 ° = 3.5 x 10-5 + j 8.38 x 10-3 = 8.38 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  89.76 ° pu V21 = V2 V1 = V12 = 3.5 x 10-5 j 8.38 x 10-3 = 8.38 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -90.24 ° pu Voltage difference between BUS 3 and BUS 2 V32 = V3 V2 = 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.48 ° 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -0.48 ° = j 16.76 x 10-3 = 16.76 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  90 ° pu V23 = V2 V3 = V32 = j 16.76 x 10-3 = -16,76 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -90 ° pu Voltage difference between BUS 3 and BUS 1 V31 = V3 V1 = 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.48 ° 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.00 ° = 3.5 x 10-5 + j 8.38 x 10-3 = 8.38 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  90.24 ° pu V13 = V1 V3 = V31 = 3.5 x 10-5 j 8.38 x 10-3 = 8.38 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -89.76 ° pu Line Current Current flow from BUS i and BUS j can be calculated by using voltage difference and interconnected admittance of the line between buses. [ Iij = yij * (Vi Vj) ] Line current between BUS 1 and BUS 2 I12 = y12 x (V1 V2) = -j20 x 8.38 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  89.76 ° = 167.6 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -0.24 ° pu (BUS 1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 2) I21 = y21 x (V2 V1) = -j20 x 8.38 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -90.24 ° = 167.6 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -180.24 ° pu (BUS 2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 1) Line current between BUS 3 and BUS 2 I32 = y32 x (V3 V2) = -j20 x 16.76 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  90 ° = 335.2 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.00 ° pu (BUS 3 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 2) I23 = y23 x (V2 V3) = -j20 x 16.76 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -90 ° = 335.2 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  180 ° pu (BUS 2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 3) Line current between BUS 3 and BUS 1 I31 = y31 x (V3 V1) = -j20 x 8.38 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  90.24 ° = 167.6 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.24 ° pu (BUS 3 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 1) I13 = y13 x (V1 V3) = -j20 x 8.38 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -89.76 ° = 167.6 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -179.76 ° pu (BUS 1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 3) Apparent Power Flow Apparent flow from BUS i and BUS j can be calculated by voltage at the sending bus and line current. [ Sij = Vi * I*ij ] Apparent Power from BUS 1 to BUS 2 S12 = V1* I*12 = 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.00 ° x 167.6 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.24 ° = 167.6 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.24 ° = 0.1676 + j 7.02 x 10-4 pu Apparent Power from BUS 2 to BUS 1 S21=V2* I*21=1à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -0.48 ° x 167.6 x 10-3à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  180.24 °=167.6 x 10-3à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  179.76 ° = -0.1676 + j7.02 x 10-4 pu Apparent Power from BUS 3 to BUS 2 S32 = V3* I*32 = 1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.48 ° x 335.2 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.00 ° = 335.2 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.48 ° = 0.3352 + j 2.81 x 10-3 pu Apparent Power from BUS 2 to BUS 3 S23=V2* I*23=1 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -0.48 ° x 335.2 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  180 °= 335.2 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  179.76 ° = -0.3352 + j 2.81 x 10-3 pu Apparent Power from BUS 3 to BUS 1 S31 = V3* I*31 = 1à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.48 ° x 167.6 x 10-3à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  -0.24 ° = 167.6 x 10-3 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.24 ° = 0.1676 + j 7.02 x 10-4 pu Apparent Power from BUS 1 to BUS 3 S13=V1* I*13=1à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  0.00 ° x 167.6 x 10-3à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  179.76 °= 167.6 x 10-3à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‚  179.76 ° = -0.1676 + j 7.02 x 10-4 pu Comparison with simulation results The unit of the above calculation results is pu value, so in order to compare the results with simulation results pu value of current and power flow need to be converted to actual values by using the following equation considering Sbase = 100MVA and Vline_base = 345kV. [3] Sactual = Sbase ÃÆ'- Spu = 100 MVA ÃÆ'- Spu Iactual = Ibase ÃÆ'- Ipu = ÃÆ'- Ipu = ÃÆ'- Ipu = 167.3479 A ÃÆ'- Ipu Calculation Result and Simulation Result Flow direction Value Calculation Result Simulation Result BUS 1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 2 |S12| 0.1676 ÃÆ'- 100 = 16.76 MVA 16.67 MVA P12 16.76 MW 16.67 MW Q12 0.0702 Mvar 0.07 Mvar |I12| 0.1676 ÃÆ'- 167.3479 = 28.0475 A 27.89 A BUS 3 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 2 |S32| 0.3352 ÃÆ'- 100 = 33.52 MVA 33.33 MVA P32 33.52 MW 33.33 MW Q32 0.281 Mvar 0.28 Mvar |I32| 0.3352 ÃÆ'- 167.3479 = 56.0950 A 55.78 A BUS 3 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 1 |S31| 0.1676 ÃÆ'- 100 = 16.76 MVA 16.67 MVA P31 16.76 MW 16.67 MW Q31 0.0702 Mvar 0.07 Mvar |I31| 0.1676 ÃÆ'- 167.3479 = 28.0475 A 27.89 A BUS 2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 1 |S21| 0.1676 ÃÆ'- 100 = 16.76 MVA 16.67 MVA P21 -16.76 MW -16.67 MW Q21 0.0702 Mvar 0.07 Mvar |I21| 0.1676 ÃÆ'- 167.3479 = 28.0475 A 27.89 A BUS 2 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 3 |S23| 0.3352 ÃÆ'- 100 = 33.52 MVA 33.33 MVA P23 -33.52 MW -33.33 MW Q23 0.281 Mvar 0.28 Mvar |I23| 0.3352 ÃÆ'- 167.3479 = 56.0950 A 55.78 A BUS 1 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ BUS 3 |S13| 0.1676 ÃÆ'- 100 = 16.76 MVA 16.67 MVA P13 -16.76 MW -16.67 MW Q13 0.0702 Mvar 0.07 Mvar |I13| 0.1676 ÃÆ'- 167.3479 = 28.0475 A 27.89 A It is found that calculation results of current flow and apparent power flows (i.e. 28.0475 A and 56.0950 A/ 33.52 MVA and 16.76MVA) are about 0.5 % higher than simulation result (i.e. 27.89 A and 55.78 A / 33.33 MVA and 16.67 MVA) which can be considered slightly different. Difference of the voltage angle at each bus between calculation (0.48 °) and simulation (0.4775 °) could be the reason for this minor difference. Question 3 Admittance Matrix and Nodal Equation Admittance between two buses y12 = y21 = -j8 pu y13 = y31 = -j4 pu y14 = y41 = -j2.5 pu y23 = y32 = -j4 pu y24 = y42 = -j5 pu y30 = -j0.8 pu (BUS3-Neutral BUS) y40 = -j0.8 pu (BUS4-Neutral BUS) Admittance Matrix Ybus (Admittance Matrix) = Diagonal elements Y(i,i) of the admittance matrix, called as the self-admittance [2] [4], are the summation of all admittance connected with BUS i. = y12 + y13 + y14 = -j8 -j4 j2.5 = -j14.5 = y21 + y23 + y24 = -j8 -j4 j5 = -j17 = y30 + y31 + y32 = -j08 -j4 j4 = -j8.8 = y40 + y41 + y42 = -j0.8 -j2.5 j5 = -j8.3 Off diagonal elements Y(i,j) of the admittance matrix, called as the mutual admittance [2] [4], are negative admittance between BUS i and BUS j. = y12 = -(-j8) = j8 pu = y13 = -(-j4) = j4 pu = y14 = -(-j2.5) = j2.5 pu = y21 = -(-j8) = j8 pu = y23 = -(-j4) = j4 pu = y24 = -(-j5) = j5 pu = y31 = -(-j4) = j4 pu = y32 = -(-j4) = j4 pu = y34 = 0 pu = y41 = -(-j2.5) = j2.5 pu = y42 = -(-j5) = j5 pu = y43 = 0 pu Therefore, admittance matrix Ybus is as follows; Ybus = = Power Flow Analysis Power flow ignoring transmission line capacitance Nodal Equation Current from the neutral bus to each bus are given and admittance matrix (Ybus) is calculated above. Therefore, final nodal equation is as follows; Ibus = Ybus * Vbus à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Vbus = Y-1bus * Ibus = Ybus à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¡Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ = = Voltage Analysis Voltage at each bus can be derived from the equation (Vbus = Y-1bus * Ibus) and Matlab was used for calculate matrix division. (Source code is attached in Appendix-1) Vbus == V12 = 0.0034 + j 0.0031 pu V13 = -0.0277 j 0.0257 pu V14 = 0.0336 + j 0.0311 pu V21 = -0.0034 j 0.0031 pu V23 = -0.0311 j 0.0288 pu V24 = 0.0302 + j 0.0280 pu V31 = 0.0277 + j 0.0257 pu V32 = 0.0311 + j 0.0288 pu V41 = -0.0336 j 0.0311 pu V42 = -0.0302 j 0.0280 pu Current flow in the system Current flow from BUS i and BUS j can be calculated by using voltage difference and interconnected admittance of the line between buses. [Iij = yij * (Vi Vj) ] The calculation result from Matlab is as follows; I12 = 0.0249 j 0.0269 pu I13 = -0.1026 + j 0.1108 pu I14 = 0.0777 j 0.0840 pu I21 = -0.0249 + j 0.0269 pu I23 = -0.1151 + j 0.1243 pu I24 = 0.1399 j 0.1511 I31 = 0.1026 j 0.1108 pu I32 = 0.1151 j 0.1243 pu I34 = 0 pu I41 = -0.0777 + j 0.0840 pu I42 = -0.1399 + j 0.1511 pu I43 = 0 pu Power flow in the system Apparent flow from BUS i and BUS j can be calculated by voltage at the sending bus and line current. [ Sij (pu) = Vi * I*ij = Pij + jQij ] The calculation result from Matlab is as follows; S12 = 0.0311 + j 0.0175 pu S13 = -0.1283 j 0.0723 pu S14 = 0.0972 + j 0.0548 pu S21 = -0.0311 j 0.0174 pu S23 = -0.1438 j 0.0803 pu S24 = 0.1749 + j 0.0977 pu S31 = 0.1283 + j 0.0780 pu S32 = 0.1438 + j 0.0875 pu S34 = 0 pu S41 = -0.0972 j 0.0496 pu S42 = -0.1749 j 0.0892 pu S44 = 0 pu Admittance Matrix considering transmission line capacitance According to the instruction of the Question 3, power system model can be drawn by using à Ã¢â€š ¬ equivalent circuit of the lines with capacitive shunt admittance (yc) of 0.1 pu at each side as shown below. Admittance Matrix Contrary to equivalent model in Question 3-1, the current flow through the capacitor in the transmission line needs to be considered to find the admittance matrix. Therefore, considering the capacitors the current equation with Kirchhoffs current law at each bus is as follows; [2] [5] Bus 1: I1 = I12 + I13 + I14 + Ic12 + Ic13 + Ic14 I1 = y12(V1-V2) + y13(V1-V3) + y14(V1-V4) + yc12V1 + yc13V1 + yc14V1 Bus 2: I2 = I21 + I23 + I24 + Ic21 + Ic23 + Ic24 I2 = y21(V2-V1) + y23(V2-V3) + y24(V2-V4) + yc21V2 + yc23V2 + yc24V2 Bus 3: I3 = I30 + I31 + I32 + Ic31 + Ic32 I3 = y30V3 + y31(V3-V1) + y32(V3-V2) + yc31V3 + yc32V3 Bus 4: I4 = I40 + I41 + I42 + Ic41 + Ic42 I4 = y40V4 + y41(V4-V1) + y42(V4-V2) + yc41V4 + yc42V4 Equation above can be rearranged to separate and group individual products by voltage. Bus 1: I1 = (y12 + y13 + y14 + yc12 + yc13+ yc14)V1 y12V2 y13V3 y14V4 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 + Y14V4 Bus 2: I2 = (y21 + y23 + y24 + yc21 + yc23+ yc24)V2- y21V1 y23V3 y24V4 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 + Y24V4 Bus 3: I3 = (y30 + y31 + y32 + yc31+ yc32)V3 y31V1 y32V2 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 + Y34V4 Bus 4: I4 = (y40 + y41 + y42 + yc41+ yc42)V4 y41V1 y42V2 = Y41V1 + Y42V2 + Y43V3 + Y44V4 Finally, Diagonal elements Y(i,i) and off diagonal elements Y(i,j) of the admittance matrix are calculated as follows; = y12 + y13 + y14 + yc12 + yc13+ yc14 = -j8 -j4 j2.5 + j0.1 + j0.1 +0.1j = -j14.2 pu = y21 + y23 + y24 + yc21 + yc23+ yc24 = -j8 -j4 j5 + j0.1 + j0.1 +0.1j = -j16.7 pu = y30 + y31 + y32 + yc31+ yc32 = -j08 -j4 j4 + j0.1 +0.1j = -j8.6 pu = y40 + y41 + y42 + yc41+ yc42 = -j0.8 -j2.5 j5 + j0.1 +0.1j = -j8.1 pu = y12 = -(-j8) = j8 pu = y13 = -(-j4) = j4 pu = y14 = -(-j2.5) = j2.5 pu = y21 = -(-j8) = j8 pu = y23 = -(-j4) = j4 pu = y24 = -(-j5) = j5 pu = y31 = -(-j4) = j4 pu = y32 = -(-j4) = j4 pu = y34 = 0 pu = y41 = -(-j2.5) = j2.5 pu = y42 = -(-j5) = j5 pu = y43 = 0 pu Therefore, admittance matrix Ybus is as follows; Ybus = = Annex-1: Matlab source code and Calculation results with Matlab Matlab Source Code % define self admittance and mutual admittance by using admittace between % the buses (y12=y21=-j8, y13=y31=-j4, y14=y41=-j2.5, y23=y32=-j4, % y24=y42=-j5, y34=0, y43=0, y30=-j0.8, y40=-j0.8 y12=-8i; y21=-8i; y13=-4i; y31=-4i; y14=-2.5i; y41=-2.5i; y23=-4i; y32=-4i; y24=-5i; y42=-5i; y34=0; y43=0; y30=-0.8i; y40=-0.8i; Y11=-8i-4i-2.5i; Y12=8i; Y13=4i; Y14=2.5i; Y21=8i; Y22=-8i-4i-5i; Y23=4i; Y24=5i; Y31=4i; Y32=4i; Y33=-0.8i-4i-4i; Y34=0; Y41=2.5i; Y42=5i; Y43=0; Y44=-5i-2.5i-0.8i; %Bus 3 and Bus 4 is not connected, so admittance Y34 and Y43 are equal to zero % define the 44 admittance matrix (Ybus) Ybus=[Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14; Y21 Y22 Y23 Y24; Y31 Y32 Y33 Y34; Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44]; % In order to define the nodal equation (I = Ybus*V), the given I needs to defined. i1=0; i2=0; i3=-i; i4=-0.4808-0.4808i; Ibus=[i1; i2; i3; i4]; % Each bus voltage can be calculated by using matrix division (V= YbusI) Vbus=YbusIbus; v1=Vbus(1,1); v2=Vbus(2,1); v3=Vbus(3,1); v4=Vbus(4,1); % Calculate voltage difference between buses v12=v1-v2; v13=v1-v3; v14=v1-v4; v21=v2-v1; v23=v2-v3; v24=v2-v4; v31=v3-v1; v32=v3-v2; v34=v3-v4; v41=v4-v1; v42=v4-v2; v43=v4-v3; % current flow between buses can be calculated by i12 = y12*(v1-v2) i12=y12*v12; i13=y13*v13; i14=y14*v14; i21=y21*v21; i23=y23*v23; i24=y24*v24; i31=y31*v31; i32=y32*v32; i34=y34*v34; i41=y41*v41; i42=y42*v42; i43=y43*v43; % apparent power can be calculated by s12 = v1 * conj(i12) s12=v1*conj(i12); s13=v1*conj(i13); s14=v1*conj(i14); s21=v2*conj(i21); s23=v2*conj(i23); s24=v2*conj(i24); s31=v3*conj(i31); s32=v3*conj(i32); s34=v3*conj(i34); s41=v4*conj(i41); s42=v4*conj(i42); s43=v4*conj(i43); % Real power and Reactive power can be derived by following p12=real(s12); p13=real(s13); p14=real(s14); q12=imag(s12); q13=imag(s13); q14=imag(s14); p21=real(s21); p23=real(s23); p24=real(s24); q21=imag(s21); q23=imag(s23); q24=imag(s24); p31=real(s31); p32=real(s32); p34=real(s34); q31=imag(s31); q32=real(s32); q34=imag(s34); p41=real(s41); p42=real(s42); p43=real(s43); q41=imag(s41); q42=real(s42); q43=imag(s43); % end Matlab Calculation Results

Ageing and Disability Policies | Country Comparison

Ageing and Disability Policies | Country Comparison Gian Nestle Sorronda Aging and Disability Task 4 4.1 Disability United States of America – In United States of America, they made an act that would help lessen or eliminate discrimination in the country for those people who have disability. This act was created back on 1990 and was called the Americans with Disability Act or ADA which prohibits discrimination towards the disabled person in any sector of the community. This is from employment, transportation, public accommodation, communication and any other government activities. The services of the mentioned should be suitable, reasonable and realistic for the individuals with disabilities to be qualified. New Zealand In New Zealand, they have formed an act that would help and give benefits for the disabled person. The act was called The New Zealand Disability Strategy which was created last 2001. This act pointed out 15 objectives that would basically address the needs of those individual who are suffering from disability. This was made to make sure that New Zealand does have a long term plan for these individuals who are perceived by the society as different. This act also will pave way to changing New Zealand’s point of view from a disabling society to an inclusive society. United Kingdom – In 2010, the United Kingdom replaced the act that was established in 1995 and called the Disability Discrimination Act. It was changed to The Equality Act of 2010 and the goal was to address the discrimination against age, gender, race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, civil partnership, marriage, and lastly the disability. This act was established to make sure that the mentioned group or part of the society receives adequate help. The help should be fair enough and proper to make sure that it will comply with the act. Similarities and Differences: The similarities of these two policies are that they wanted the people of their country and their respective community to treat the people with disability with fairness, equality and without discrimination. This means that they need to encourage and allow education for the disabled individual, ensure that their rights are met, proper employment, aware on how to access services, life style choice and allow them to live with a quality life. On the other hand, differences are also noticeable especially in the part of United Kingdom wherein they included the disability together with other part of the society. Unlike the United States of America and New Zealand, they have created a separate act and strategy for those disabled individual to make sure that their needs will be addressed immediately. Aging United States of America – They have established an act for the older people to make sure needs are met. It is called the Older American Act which was established back on 1965. This was created to provide each community to have services for the aging people. This was passed due to the concern that was arising during this time that older people are not receiving appropriate care in the community. The government mostly funds the services that will be provided to the person though there some nonprofit agencies as well that helps out for the services, the government is still the primary provider. United Kingdom – The Equality Act of 2010 by the UK Government also covers the needs and the rights of the aging population by receiving adequate help from them and treat them without discrimination by the public and from the society. This covers from their employment, education and training. One individual who in fact is aging doesn’t lose their rights to be able to work and support themselves. They can continue to be employed as much as they like or pursue any education that they would like. New Zealand – In New Zealand, there are two current act and strategy that is in place and active. One was established in 2001 and called the New Zealand Positive Aging Strategy and the other is the Health of Older People Strategy which was established in 2002. Both of these act has only one goal which is to provide a proper care and place for the aging people and live a quality life despite their age. Both of these also encourage the government or guide the government to have agencies to be able to provide the kind of services that these older people need. Starting from a place where a person can age and still is able to have a quality life until to the services that are needed from transport services, communication and etc. Similarities and Differences The similarities with these act and strategy are that they are aiming one goal for the older people. These acts are a representation from the government by each country that everyone has the right to receive proper care as they aged and that the government is still accountable for them. These countries are well aware as well that they need to fund the services that will be provided to aging people. Their respective government mostly provides the funding and they also linked with other nonprofit or local government unit to provide proper assistance, care, transportation needs, communication needs, mobility needs and that they will not be discriminated in any part of the society from employment to other services for the aged. The differences are mainly how these acts are established. Both US of A and New Zealand created or established a different and specific act and strategy to address the aging population while United Kingdom created a broader aspect as aging was included to their Eq uality Act of 2010 which covers from gender, religion and disability. 4.2 Disability United States of America – The Americans with Disability Act of 1990 or ADA provides services such care in a hospital, education and public transport to the disabled individual from the government. This means that services are being funded by the American government to give out proper care to those who are affected. This is by way of the creation of sub group of the government to particularly provide these cares and also from an individual or private sector but still fully funded by the government. United Kingdom – The Equality Act of 2010 by the government solely addresses the needed guide on how to provide cares to the disabled people. This may be by the government or any private service provider. This is to make sure that cares and services delivered from or by a public hospital, educational institution, nonprofit organization and local government unit are aligned to the act. This is also to ensure that there is no discriminatory act anywhere from banks, shops, colleges, transport services, taxi and public bodies. New Zealand – the New Zealand Disability Strategy of 2001 provides guide on how to be able to give out proper care and services to an individual who is suffering from disability. This is to make sure that services given to them are associated and calibrated by the act. This is also one way of making sure that DHB’s or District Health Board, General Practitioner’s or GP’s and other private and local agencies are providing care without discrimination and that they are providing their care according to the act. Similarities and Differences The similarities within the acts of these three countries are that all of them can be able to apply for those individual who are affected by mental disability and physical disability. These acts were established for them to be able to have an access whenever they needed help. Especially when an individual that has disabilities have been discriminated by and in the society. Lastly, the main goal of these acts is to provide fairness in giving out care and services for an individual who has disability. On the other hand, the difference between these acts is that for the United Kingdom, they merged together 116 legislation and made into an act which will provide better service for the disabled. Some services as well are publicly funded and there are services that are not and could be subsidized by the government and the family. Aging United States of America – The Older American Act of 1965 was established to provide community services for the aging people whose services are often funded by the government and some are provided by a private agency. This is to ensure that older people can still improve their lives in relation to their income, health, housing, employment, long term care, retirement, and community services. The purpose for the act is to provide and enhance the ability of an aging individual to maintain its independence and to be able to stay and interact still in their house and in their community. The funds are given from federal funds wherein it is allocated solely for the purpose of the act. United Kingdom – Since the act made by the UK government replaced previous laws and made into a one act which made it to be easier to grasp and understand. The act just clearly states that providing care for the aged people should be without discrimination. They should be receiving the same treatment as what others received as well. The law particularly states that an individual should be receiving fair treatment when they receive services from the government or any other local government unit and should not be discriminated due to their age. This also covers not only for the services but for education, transportation, accessing the services and communication. New Zealand – This is to ensure that Kiwi’s or New Zealanders will receive proper care and have a significant life while coming to age. The strategy made sure that they will be able to acquire services whenever they needed from DHB’s or District Health Board, in the community and whenever they use transportation. The strategy also made sure that aging individual can still receive services like health and wellness, financial security, independence, self fulfillment, a good and living environment. Similarities and Differences The similarities between these acts by different countries are they aim to make sure that service deliveries are well provisioned and there is fairness in the services given to the older and aging individual. Due to the rampant discrimination of other citizens in these said countries, their government created this acts and their primary goal is to have a positive aging for each individual such as employment of mature workers, changing the society’s attitude towards older people and last the protection of the rights and interest for the older people. On the other hand, there are noted services that are available for the older people that are competent enough to be able to provide idealistic care and services for them but there are also incompetent services such as supporting their life style, recreation and their cultural belief. References: Administration for Commnity Living. Older Americans Act. Retrieved from http://www.aoa.gov/AoA_programs/OAA/ Age UK. The Equality Act- What It Means for You. Retrieved from http://www.ageuk.org.uk/work-and-learning/discrimination-and-rights/the-equality-act/ Equality and Human Rights. What is the Equality Act? Retrieved from http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/legal-and-policy/key-legislatures/equality-act-2010/what-is-the-equality-act Ministry of Social Development. The New Zealand Positive Aging Strategy. Retrieved from https://www.msd.govt.nz/what-we-can-do/seniorcitizens/positive-ageing/strategy/ Office of the Disability Issues. New Zealand Disability Strategy Objectives. Retrieved from http://www.odi.govt.nz/nzds/progress-reports/july01-sept01/new-zealand-disability-strategy-objectives.html Americans with Disability Act of 1990. Retrieved from http://www.ada.gov/pubs/ada.htm Division of Aging Services. History of Older Americans Act. Retrieved from https://aging.dhs.georgia.gov/history-older-americans-act Utilitarianism: The War On Iraq Utilitarianism: The War On Iraq Utilitarianism is the concept that the moral worth of an action is determined exclusively by its contribution to overall utility, that is, its contribution to happiness or pleasure as summed among all people. It is thus a form of consequentialism, meaning that the moral significance of an action is concluded by its outcome. Often described as the greatest good for the greatest number of people  [1]  , the topic can be classified as a quantitative and reductionist approach to ethics. With advocates such as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, it is a subject that is perhaps one of the most famous within ethics, Mills book Utilitarianism exemplifies this, as most scholars educated in the subject will be familiar with the work. In relation to the current war in Iraq, the subject is as relevant as ever. However, as with most ethical theories there are differing branches. The main debate within utilitarianism is the act vs. rule question. Act utilitarianism states that, when faced with a choice, we must first think about the likely consequences of potential actions and, from that, choose to do what we believe will result in most gratification. Rule utilitarianism, on the other hand, begins by looking at potential rules of action. To decide whether a rule should be followed, you must look at what would happen if it were constantly followed. If adherence to the rule produces more happiness than otherwise, it is a rule that morally should be adhered to at all times. Some argue that rule utilitarianism collapses into act utilitarianism, because for any given rule, in the case where breaking the rule produces more utility, the rule can be sophisticated by the addition of a sub-rule that handles cases like the exception.  [2]   For the purpose of this essay, we will mainly consider act utilitarianism in relation to the Iraq war. Obviously there are massive questions surrounding the ethical reasoning behind the invasion in Iraq, particularly on the part of the United States, but also in the UK where it is one of the big issues in current news and has been since it all began in 2003. The actual reason for the invasion of Iraq is often queried and there has never been an answer given that can be 100% proven. For example, the main reason given by Bushs government in 2003 was the now infamous Weapons of Mass Destruction. Although advised that only some degraded remnants of misplaced or abandoned chemical weapons from before 1991 were found, they were not the weapons which had been the pretext for the invasion  [3]  , yet it continued regardless. Some US officials also accused Iraqi Dictator Saddam Hussein of supporting al-Qaeda  [4]  , and other reasons were given such as spreading democracy in the count ry  [5]  , Iraqi government human rights abuse and Iraqs financial support for the families of Palestinian suicide bombers  [6]  . The sceptics amongst us will also point towards the oil factor in the war and many believe the sole reason for invading was fuelled by fuel itself. Even Americas elder statesman of finance, Alan Greenspan, said I am saddened that it is politically inconvenient to acknowledge what everyone knows: the Iraq war is largely about oil.  [7]   Before utilitarianism and Iraq is examined more closely, the first factor to be considered in any ethical dispute about battle should be the Just War Theory. This concerns itself directly with the ethical debate preceding any conflict, and the actions of combatants concerning ethical execution of warfare. These two distinctions are called Jus ad bellum, i.e. the morality of going to war, and Jus in bello, meaning the morality of action within a war. Both have specific criteria to be addressed and identified before war may be decided ethical. Going to war is just, according to this theory, when there exists a just and proportionate cause, meaning the cause is right, and the seriousness of the issue merits the grave decision to fight. Secondly, right intention, earning a fuller peace will be achieved after war than is possible in the absence of war, and right authority, asserting only those with authority can declare war, must both be fulfilled as well. Lastly, there must be a reasonab le chance of success, and war must be the absolute last option.  [8]  Looking at this list, you could argue that before the invasion even took place we were dealing with a wholly unethical concept. As people cant decide on one definite reason as to why the war in Iraq actually began, it is difficult to argue that there is a just and reasonable cause. Moreover the fact that many believe the war is simply for oil again poses problems for those who would say the right intentions are behind the war, and the fact that Iraq is such a volatile state anyway indicated that the chances of peace after the war are slim. In February 2003, the U.S. Armys top general, Eric Shinseki, told the Senate Armed Services Committee that it would take several hundred thousand soldiers to secure Iraq  [9]  , perhaps indicating that there wasnt a reasonable chance of success either. Also in 2003 French Foreign Minister Dominique de Villepin stated we believe that military intervention would be the wor st solution  [10]  , in direct contrast to the idea that war should be the absolute last option. All of these would suggest that before utilitarianism has been considered, the war in Iraq is unethical anyway, as if there is such a concept, it is not a just war. Many people might question whether any war can be a just war but World War II is one of the few wars that nearly everyone believes was morally justified. Nazi Germany and Japan were dangerous regimes that committed atrocities against conquered peoples, and many nations felt that they needed to be stopped. For these reasons, some refer to World War II as the good war. In contrast, the social and political turmoil caused by the Vietnam War was based, in part, on debate over whether that war was justified.  [11]   Following on from this, there are also many legal questions surrounding the war in Iraq. With regard to utilitarianism, it is clear that something illegal should not be for the greatest good for the greatest number of people as the UN and even representatives of supporting countries such as the UK have spoken out against it. Kofi Annan, the Secretary General of the United Nations, said of the invasion, I have indicated it was not in conformity with the UN Charter. From our point of view, from the Charter point of view, it was illegal.  [12]  Furthermore, Lord Bingham, the former British Law Lord said the war was in serious breach of international law. He went on to accuse Britain and the US of acting like a world vigilante, obviously not a tag youd associate with an ethical war. Bingham said: Particularly disturbing to proponents of the rule of law is the cynical lack of concern for international legality among some top officials in the Bush administration.  [13]  If utilitar ianism is the moral significance of an action being decided by its outcome, then an invasion that besides removing Hussein doesnt seem to have achieved much in over 6 years, and is arguably illegal anyway, then the war in Iraq seems completely unethical. There is lots of literature that covers the topic of utilitarianism and one essay written to offer evidence of its worth as a moral premise, and to retort to common misapprehensions about it is Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill, who will we look at in more detail later. Utilitarianism is defined by Mill as a theory originating from the belief that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. He classifies happiness as pleasure and the absence of pain and continues to argue that pleasure can fluctuate in quality and quantity. Furthermore Mill considers that pleasures that are embedded in your higher faculties should be superior to more base pleasures. Additionally, it is argued that accomplishment of goals such as virtuous living, and other achievement of ambitions and purposes should be considered when thinking about ones happiness.  [14]   Mills thesis embodies his effort to respond to the condemnations of utilitarianism, and thereby to provide a more intricate and distinct moral hypothesis. Reasons that the theory had been criticised include that it does not afford sufficient defence for individual rights an issue which as we will discuss later, Mill himself championed. Another criticism is that happiness is more difficult to understand than shown by the theory and gauging everything by the same standard is not satisfactory or realistic.  [15]   Mill reasons that the theory of utilitarianism overlaps with natural emotions that derive from the social personalities of humans. For this reason, people would innately incorporate these values as an ethical requisite, if the general public were to integrate utilitarianism itself as an ethic. He argues that happiness is the solitary foundation of morality, and that happiness is the only thing that society desires. This claim is backed up by explaining that all the other entities of individuals aspiration are either methods to happiness, or are taken into account when happiness is defined. In a verbose manner Mill describes that the concept of justice is actual fact sourced from utility, and that things like rights subsist simply for the reason that they are essential for individual content.  [16]   The argument for utilitarianism encompasses five chapters. His opening chapter provides an introduction to the essay, and in the following chapter, Mill presents some common delusions about the theory and considers the definition of utilitarianism. The third chapter is an analysis about the definitive incentives that the theory can offer. The penultimate chapter examines techniques of establishing the soundness of utilitarianism. In his fifth and last chapter, particularly relevant to this essay owing to issues like the Just War Theory, Mill writes about the relationship between justice and utility, and argues that happiness is the foundation of justice.  [17]   Looking at the fifth chapter of Mills Utilitarianism in more depth, we can deduce many ideas that also relate to the war on Iraq and whether it is a just or ethical war. The first section of the chapter is largely descriptive as Mill begins by saying that throughout history, one of the major obstacles to the reception of utility has been that it does not tolerate a supposition of justice. Whether or not the justice or injustice of an act is something inherent and separate from questions of utility is what Mill attempts to determine in the chapter. Mill commences by attempting to pinpoint the definition of justice, by coming up with a list of things that are often described as just or unjust. In trying to define justice, Mill considers many factors, including legal rights, deprivation of something someone has a moral right to possess, whether a person receives what they deserve or not, violating agreements, the injustice of preferentialism in improper situations, and finally the notion of equality as an element of justice. In the mainly descriptive first part of the chapter, Mill counters the assertion that utilitarianism is opposed to justice. He mainly writes about the classification of justice and its origins historically and it is also noteworthy that Mill does not offer his own conjecture about what is required for justice. From Mills point of view, justice is not a theoretical model so much as it is a feeling about morality that lots of people possess. As a result, in defining justice Mill studies what other people denote by the term. He concludes that justice exists for the reason that people believe it does, and it means what they consider it to mean. Beginning at the accepted understanding of justice, Mill envisages what associates a different set of ideas about the theory. Subsequently, he puts forward that they are amalgamated by the concept of rights, an idea he brings in through his claims about perfect obligation. For Mill, a right insinuates that an individual has a legitimate entitlement that the social order is to guard them against any desecration. Many advocates of utilitarianism write off the idea of rights, and many debates about the subject are based around whether rights do actually exist, but Mill held a different perspective. Having just defined justice, Mill now turns to the question of whether the sentiment of justice comes from a special, unique tendency of nature, or whether it can be linked to the concerns of utility. Mill argues for the latter. Mill contends that there are two components to justice. The first is the desire to punish a person who has done harm. This desire comes from the impulse of self-defense, and the feeling of sympathy. All animals have instincts of self- defense. However, unlike animals, humans are capable of sympathizing not only with their offspring, but with all human beings. Furthermore, humans are more intelligent, and thus have a wider range of sentiments and are able to feel that they are a part of a broader community of interests. Justice then, reflects the natural feeling of retaliation, expanded by sympathy and intellect to apply to things that harm society at large. In themselves, these feelings are not moral sentiments. Justices moral component can be seen rather in the quality of the outrage people feel at an injustice: people can be upset by an injustice not only if it affects them individually, but if it goes against the interests of society at large; this demonstrates a moral concern. The other component of justice is that there is an identifiable victim who suffers if justice is infringed upon. Mill argues that the idea of a right is not a concept separate from justice, but is rather a manifestation of the other aspects of justice, namely the desire for punishment and the fact that there is an assignable person who has been harmed. A right means that a person has a valid claim on society to protect him in the possession of that right. However, if one wants to know why society should defend this right, Mill argues that the only reason is one of general utility. The sentiment of justice derives its intensity from its link to the animalistic need for retaliation. It gets its moral force from the impressive kind of utility that is involved in rights violationsnamely the interest of security. People cannot do without security, and require before they can enjoy anything else. Security is so fundamental that its difference of degree as a form of utility becomes a differ ence in kind. It is so important that it takes on a feeling of absoluteness, of moral necessity. Mill then observes that if justice exists independent of utility, if it is a standard in its own right that can be understood through introspection, then it is difficult to understand why questions of justice are often so debatable. In fact, there is as fierce a discussion about what is just as there is about what is useful to society, and it is guided by many conflicting ideas. For example, there is a conflict over which acts should be punished, and over the proper apportionment of punishments. In a different arena, there is disagreement over whether people should be paid more for having natural talents, and whether taxes should be graduated, or issued at a flat rate. In fact, the only way to navigate among conflicting claims of justice is to look to the source of its authority, namely, social utility. This does not mean, however, that there is no difference between the just and the expedient, or that policy is more important than justice. Rather, justice grounded on utility is the chief part, and the most important part, of all morality; it concerns many of the most basic essentials for human well-being. Mill argues that the moral rules that forbid people to harm each other are more important than any rules of policy, rules about how societal affairs should be managed. Furthermore, the preservation of justice preserves peace among human beings. Thus, there is a very strong utility interest in preserving and enforcing justices dictates. Mill argues that most of the applications of justice we observe today are simply ways of maintaining the notion of moral rights just discussed. Impartiality is one rule that is partly based in these, but also comes from the very meaning of utility. The greatest happiness principle doesnt have meaning unless each persons happiness, supposed equal in degree, is valued exactly as much as somebody elses. People are seen to have an equal claim to happiness, and an equal claim to the means to happiness. Social inequalities that are not required by expediency are thus seen to be unjust. Mill closes by observing that justice is a name for some moral requirements, which are higher on the scale of utility, and thus more important, than any others. However, there can be cases in which some other social duty is so important that it overrules one of the general rules of justice. Thus, it could be acceptable to steal in order to save a life. Mill argues that the previous discussion has resolved what had been the only real problem with utilitarian theory. It has always been clear that cases of justice are also cases of expediency; the difference is that very different sentiments attach themselves to issues of justice and expeediency. Mill argues that he has accounted for what this feeling is; it is simply the natural feeling of resentment, moralized by being connected to social good. Justice is the name for certain social utilities that are more important than any other kind, and thus should be preserved by a feeling that is different in kind from others. It might be thought that utilitarianism supports the immediate withdrawal of American forces, but that isnt necessarily the case. Indeed, two aspects of utilitarian thought suggest that immediate withdrawal would be wrong. The first of these is the fact that utilitarianism is progressive. As opposed to concepts like Kantian thought, it takes no account of the past. In utilitarianism you deal with the situation you find yourself in. Even if the war in Iraq was wrong, by utilitarian standards, and even if its been badly managed by those same standards, its a separate question what ought to be done now, given the situation as we find it.  [18]  The second aspect is that utilitarianism sanctions negative responsibility. Bernard Williams defines this by saying, If I am ever responsible for anything, then I must be just as much responsible for things that I allow or fail to prevent, as I am for things that I myself, in the more everyday restricted sense, bring about.  [19]  This im plies that a person is responsible not only for what they do, but for what they allow also. With relation to the US occupation, if they withdraw their troops and the differing sects of Iraq, Shiites, Sunnis, Kurds etc, begin to kill each other en masse, as seems likely  [20]  , then from the viewpoint of a utilitarian, the US is responsible, as the deaths could have been prevented. The question utilitarians must answer is which action, available to the US, would maximise overall utility? According to utilitarianism, Americans count for no more than Iraqis.  [21]  Mill describes Bentham as saying Everybody to count for one, nobody for more than one.  [22]  It may be that every action available to the US results in death and suffering, and therefore pleasure doesnt seem an applicable notion; however the question is which action would result in the least deaths and the least suffering. Furthermore, act utilitarianism makes no distinction between the guilty and the innocent e.g. if breaking a promise does not weaken respect for the moral rule to keep promises (in which chaos would result and bad utility would be produced), then the act can be justified.  [23]  This is important because not many utilitarian supporters have spoken out about the Iraq war, and Burgess-Jackson speculates that it may be because it will make utilitarianism look bad  [24]   . He goes on to state that most Americans think American lives are worth more than Iraqi lives, i.e. patriotism. Most think that, all being equal, doing harm is worse than allowing harm. Also many think that what was done in the past is morally relevant to what we ought to do now. Finally, most Americans think that the interests of the innocent are more important than the interests of the guilty. From this spectrum you can see why utilitarianism would look unfavourable. ] Along with the Just War Theory, utilitarian ethics both claim moral correctness through the evaluation of consequences. Other ethicists though, originally Kant, contend that good intention is the true substance of moral certainty. This belief led Kant to propose an ethical system comprised of maxims called duty.  [25]  In this type of system a lie, even when committed under implications of good consequences, is always unethical. Applying Kantian ethics to war is more problematic than this, but in comparison to predicting outcomes it is far more one-dimensional. Kant, urges us to follow a maxim authorising violent action only when our own life is threatened, To preserve ones life is duty  [26]  . If then it was 100% proven that Weapons of Mass Destruction were present in Iraq, then the Kantian maxim for war is satisfied. At present though, it seems it is not. Ethical thinkers can therefore be roughly divided into two sections. First of all we think of those who deem whether an action is moral or immoral owing to the motive behind it. The second camp relates to those who decide whether or not an action is moral with regard to the consequences it manufactures. Kant is firmly in the former camp, making him a deontologist rather than a consequentialist when it comes to ethics. (Deontology stems from the Greek for duty, deon and logos i.e. science.)  [27]  Kant would argue that we are subject to moral judgment because we are able to consider and give reasons for our actions, and hence moral judgment should be directed at our reasons for acting. As has already been established, an extremely important figure in the field of utilitarianism is John Stuart Mill, whose essay we considered earlier. Born in 1806 in London, one of the most important philosophers and writers of the Victorian period, John Stuart Mill was a political activist, and was involved in efforts for social reform throughout his life. Mills father, James Mill, was also a famous philosopher and historian. In order to be properly trained and educated, Mill Senior believed that a childs mind was like a blank slate and must be subject to a strict regimen. Consequently, he isolated his son from children his own age and kept him under a rigorous schedule. He saw to it that by the age of three, Mill was learning Greek, and by the age of eight had become skilled in Latin. Mills day consisted of academic work, and he was granted only one hour of leisure each day. By the age of fourteen, he had studied profoundly in history, logic, mathematics, and economics. Mill began studying Jeremy Bentham at the age of fifteen, the fundamentalist English theorist and more importantly the founder of utilitarianism. The premise of utilitarianism initiated a lifelong quest for social reform.  [28]   In 1822, Mill began publishing and a year later he had helped form the Utilitarian Society, which convened at Benthams house. He recovered from a severe bout of depression in 1826, attributed his emotionally restricted childhood. After this Mill resumed an active academic life, but with an altered point of view. He now allowed for a human dimension in his thought that counterbalanced the futility of utilitarianism, emphasising an intellectual attitude to life at the expense of emotions. Even though Mill was influenced by utilitarianism, a theory that addresses individuals to work for the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people, he nonetheless worked to protect peoples rights, and in particular women. Mills concern for social reform had roots in his belief that the majority often denies liberty to the people, be it through moral judgments, social judgments, or indeed law.  [29]  The concept of individual autonomy reappears right the way through Mills work. He held th e belief that a person may do anything they wish, as long as that persons actions do not harm others. He upheld that governments have no right to interfere with an individuals affairs, even when they use laws that are intended to be beneficial to the individual in question. In effect, the only feasible grounds for any government to exist in the first place is to protect the individual so that he or she experiences defence in times of war, security in peacetime, and safety from deception.  [30]   With regards to the War on Iraq then, you can compare the war to the points raised by Mill. He held that a person could do what they liked, as long as it didnt harm others. Obviously the war in Iraq has harmed countless people in one way or another so this is a violation of liberty. Mill proposed that governments have no right to interfere with an individuals affairs, even when the law is intended to be helpful. Arguably, when you look at the contradictory evidence now at our disposal, Iraq was posing no threat to America or the UK. Hence if we look at Iraq as an individual, then the US government and their allies were interfering with their affairs, even though it was meant to be beneficial, i.e. disposing of Saddam Hussein. Things got so bad in Iraq that people started saying they were better off under Saddam, so for some Iraqi civilians, the interference was completely unnecessary. This is not to say that they had a good life under the dictator, just that it was the better of two evils.  [31]  Furthermore, Mill went on to stress that the only grounds for government to exist is so that the individual, in this case America, would experience safety from deception, security in times of war and also in times of peace. You could argue that all three of these criterions havent been met and hence the Iraq war violates individuals rights as well as being an unjust war. Daniel Pipes raises some great points in his book, Militant Islam Reaches America with the chapter Who is the enemy? The first section of the chapter is entitled, Vagueness and Euphemism. He speaks of the first few weeks after the 9/11 attacks, when Bush would not explicitly name his enemies. He insisted they were neither Afghans nor even Muslims but rather people, as I have noted earlier, whom he called evildoers or the evil ones.  [32]  The chapter is based on the original invasion of Afghanistan, but everything that Pipes says rings true for the war on Iraq also. When Bush announced that military action was being initiated, he defined the goal as the disruption and defeat of the global terror network. Pipes again questions what this means, global terror network is applicable assuming that the global network is not exclusively Al-Qaeda to militant Islamic groups such as Hizbullah and Hamas, the IRA and the Tamil Tigers. Most interestingly however, the last group that Pipes ca tegorises in the potential global terror network is States like Iraq?  [33]  The book was published before the actual invasion of Iraq yet Pipes predicted it, all down to Bushs (arguably clever) vagueness when thinking of a tag for the enemies of the United States. Still no one really knows the real reason Iraq was invaded, and hence for critics of the war such the oil sceptics Pipes argument shows a very interesting argument. Bushs deliberate vagueness meant that in effect, he could do whatever he liked to an enemy state, because the threat of evildoers continuing to try and harm America and Americans  [34]  didnt limit his options to a specific adversary and as long as he could claim some sort of threat, i.e. weapons of mass destruction, then in his mind he could justify America going on the offensive. In conclusion there are many topics in history that we can look at with regard to utilitarianism and war, which show surprising similarities with the Iraq war this essay was

If real world markets can be made to resemble more closely the model :: Economics

If real world markets can be made to resemble more closely the model of perfect competition, economic efficiency will improve. Explain why Perfect competition is generally regarded as economically more efficient? Chris Simons ============ "If real world markets can be made to resemble more closely the model of perfect competition, economic efficiency will improve." a) Explain why Perfect competition is generally regarded as economically more efficient? (20 marks) The model of perfect competition describes market where there is a high degree of competition. The word "perfect" does not mean that this form of competition produces ideal results or maximises economic welfare in other words, the word "perfect" should not have any normative overtones. A perfectly competitive market must possess four characteristics. Firstly, there must be many buyers and sellers in the market, none of whom is large enough to influence price. Buyers and sellers are said to be price takers. This type of market has many relatively small firms that supply goods to a large number of small buyers. There must be freedom of entry and exit from the industry. Firms must be able to establish themselves in the industry easily and quickly. Barriers to entry must therefore be low. If a firm wishes to cease production and leave the market, it must be free to do so. Buyers and sellers possess perfect knowledge of prices. If one firm charges a higher price than the market price, the demand for its product will be zero as buyers buy elsewhere in the market. Hence the firm has to accept the market price if it wishes to sell into the market (i.e. it must be a price taker). All firms must produce a homogenous product. There is no branding of products and products are identical. There are very few industries in the world that approximate to this kind of market structure. One that might is agriculture. In agriculture there is a large number of farmers supplying the market, none of whom is large enough to influence price. It is easy to buy a farm and set up in business. It is equally easy to sell a farm and leave the industry. Farmers on the whole possess perfect knowledge. They know what prices prevail in the market, for instance from the farming press. Finally farmers produce a range of homogenous products. King Edwards's potatoes from one farm are indistinguishable from King Edwards's potatoes from another. In Europe and in many countries around the world, farming is in certain instances not a perfectly competitive market. This is because governments may interfere in the market, buying and selling to fix a price. Perfect competition is generally regarded as economically more